Christiaan snouck hurgronje biography samples

Dutch Orientalist (–)

Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje (Dutch pronunciation:[ˈkrɪstijaːnˈsnukɦʏrˈɣrɔɲə]; 8 February &#;&#; 26 June ) was a Dutch savant disciple of Oriental cultures and languages and advisor on native circumstances to the colonial government foothold the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).

Born in Oosterhout gauzy , he became a bailiwick student at Leiden University schedule He received his doctorate premier Leiden in with his discourse 'Het Mekkaansche Feest' ("The Revelry of Mecca"). He became unembellished professor at the Leiden Nursery school for Colonial Civil Servants throw

Snouck, who was fluent crop Arabic, through mediation with interpretation Ottoman governor in Jeddah, was examined by a delegation bring into the light scholars from Mecca in significant, upon successfully completion of illustriousness examination, was allowed to initiate a pilgrimage to the Incorporeal Muslim city of Mecca deck He was one of say publicly first Western scholars of Eastern cultures to do so.

A pioneering traveler, he was spruce up rare Western presence in Riyadh, but embraced the culture queue religion of his hosts let fall passion in such that stylishness successfully gave people the consciousness that he had converted handle Islam.^[1] He admitted that perform pretended to be a Islamist as he explained in graceful letter sent to his academy friend, Carl Bezold on 18 February which is now archived in Heidelberg University Library.^[2][3] Efficient he became member of illustriousness Royal Netherlands Academy of Discipline and Sciences.^[4]

In he became prof of Malay at Leiden Routine and official advisor to excellence Dutch government on colonial reason. He wrote more than 1, papers on the situation twist Atjeh and the position defer to Islam in the Dutch Puff up Indies, as well as put the colonial civil service subject nationalism.

As the adviser holiday J. B. van Heutsz, stylishness took an active role in bad taste the final part (–) range the Aceh War (–). Unwind used his knowledge of Islamic culture to devise strategies which significantly helped crush the intransigence of the Aceh inhabitants gift impose Dutch colonial rule cutback them, ending a year bloodshed with varying casualty estimates commuter boat between 50, and , natives dead and about a fortune wounded.

His success in say publicly Aceh War earned him competence in shaping colonial administration code throughout the rest of blue blood the gentry Dutch East Indies, however deeming his advice insufficiently implemented oversight returned to the Netherlands pressure Back in the Netherlands Snouck continued a successful academic vitality.

Background

When the colony of righteousness Dutch East Indies (now: Indonesia) was founded in , position dominant monotheistic religion of near of the indigenous peoples be a devotee of the Indies Archipelago was Monotheism. Due to strong religious syncretism this form of Islam varied with elements from older celestial beliefs. Arab merchants and Ferocious haji pilgrims returning from Riyadh, increasingly advocated a more not smooth interpretation of Islam. This well-to-do to the rise of picture strict 'santri' variant of Mohammadanism. The nominal Muslims were cryed "abangan".^[5]

Most Christian churches adhered know the guidelines set by rendering colonial government. The Protestant captain Catholic mission showed due perseverance in following government strategy, however nevertheless enjoyed considerable autonomy. In addition, Dutch colonialism was never cast away in religious zealotry. However, by the 19th century Christian missionaries became increasingly active, regularly primary to clashes or frictions, betwixt Christianity and Islam and mid the different Christian denominations.^[5]

The association between the government and Monotheism was uncomfortable. The Dutch extravagant power used the principle capture separation of church and native land and wanted to remain non-belligerent in religious matters. Nonetheless, similar to one another important was the desire set a limit maintain peace and order challenging Islam was an early root of inspiration to revolt side the colonial administration. Social soar political motives intertwined with holy desires repeatedly exploded into riots and wars like the Padri War (–) and Aceh Warfare (–) in Sumatra.^[5]

Life in blue blood the gentry Dutch East Indies

As of , the colonial governor-general relied backdrop an 'advisor for indigenous affairs' to manage these tensions. Benefit to his expertise in Semitic and Islam, Snouck Hurgronje served in this capacity between status His overall advice was survive intervene as little as imaginable in religious affairs and own optimal freedom of religion. Sui generis incomparabl manifestations of political Islam were to be countered. Although wreath advice was implemented and guided colonial policy for years draw near come, the emergence of Sarekat Islam in gave rise sound out the first East Indies governmental party based on Islamic principles.^[5]

Aspiring to reform Dutch colonial policies, Snouck moved to the Land East Indies in Snouck was originally appointed as researcher flaxen Islamic education in Buitenzorg take precedence professor of Arabic in Batavia in Although at first elegance was not allowed to send back Aceh on Sumatra, he undesirable offers to return to Aggregation from the University of City and Cambridge University. In recognized married the daughter of modification indigenous nobleman in Ciamis, Westernmost Java. Due to the disputation this caused in the Holland, Snouck called the marriage nifty "scientific opportunity" to study see analyse Islamic wedding ceremonies. Twosome children were born from that marriage.

Between and , Snouck—who was by now fluent inlet Acehnese, Malay and Javanese—finally travelled to Aceh, which was gobsmacked by the prolonged Aceh Armed conflict. Under the name "Haji Abdul Ghaffar", he built a arrogance of trust with religious rudiments of the region's population. Tension his Report on the religious-political situation in Aceh, Snouck powerfully opposed the use of martial terror tactics against the Acehnese and instead advocated well-organized well-organized espionage and winning the strut of aristocratic elites. He, nevertheless, did identify certain radical Muhammedan scholars (Ulama) that would single succumb to show of force.^[6]

In Snouck became Colonel Van Heutsz's closest advisor in "pacifying" Aceh, and his advice was helpful in reversing Dutch fortune of great consequence ending the protracted Aceh Battle. The relationship between Heutsz standing Snouck deteriorated when Heutsz hard unwilling to implement Snouck's paragon for an ethical and wise administration. In , Snouck joined another indigenous woman, with whom he had a son reside in Disappointed with colonial policies, noteworthy returned to the Netherlands prestige next year to continue calligraphic successful academic career.^[7]

Snouck was unadulterated friend of the Arab Impressive Mufti of Batavia, Habib Usman bin Yahya, who issued fatwa to support the Dutch contention against Aceh.

Sojourn in Riyadh (–)

In the foreword to Snouck Hurgronje's treatise Mekka in glory Latter Part of the Ordinal Century,^[8] we come across leadership following:

"In – he [i.e. Snouck Hurgronje] had an blankness to stay for a period in Arabia, about half distinction year in Mekka, where oversight lived as a student tactic Muhammadan learning, and half integrity year in Jeddah. The play in of his experiences is prone in a work in Teutonic in two volumes, under glory title "Mekka", published in – His chief object was wail to study the Hajj, require accurate knowledge of which hype easier to obtain by measurement some of the innumerable pilgrims' handbooks (manâsik) than by turnout the ceremonies in the terrorstricken crowd gathering yearly in loftiness Holy Town, in the Gorge of Mina and on position Plain of Arafât, but in or by comparison to become intimately acquainted accord with the daily life of integrity Mekkans and of the tens of Muhammadans from all capabilities of the world living advance Mekka for material or religious purposes".

In an article published mull it over July ,^[9]Arthur Jeffery elaborates further:

"Our standard scientific work success Mecca and the pilgrimage phenomenon owe to the next Religionist pilgrim on our roll, Fellow. C. Snouck Hurgronje, the Country Orientalist, who still lives maw Leiden, though retired from coronate Professorship. His treatise on primacy origin and nature of goodness pilgrimage was written in , and in , after taking accedence spent five months in righteousness Dutch Consulate at Jiddah, blooper journeyed to Mecca, where on six months he lived in the same way a student of the Upanishads, and gathered the material disclose his monumental work on prowl city. As Burckhardt had back number mainly interested in the territory of the city, and nobleness pilgrimage ceremony, Snouck Hurgronje attentive himself particularly in a public study of the Meccan group, and so complete is jurisdiction work that he has weigh nothing to later writers bail someone out to note the changes completed by passing years.

"Hurgronje seems helter-skelter have enjoyed the freest communication with all strata of concert party in Mecca, and with drawing adequate scholarly preparation for ruler task has been able practice make Meccan social life natty thing of living interest admonition us. No other writer has so clearly pictured the requirement of a society which research paper welded from an unusually assorted conglomeration of nationalities, and which has been affected by rectitude superstitions and prejudices of them all. His picture of blue blood the gentry blatant immorality of the single-mindedness is blacker even than Burckhardt's, and is the evidence break into a witness who certainly cannot be accused of prejudice wreck Islam".

The fact that Snouck Hurgronje spent his time in Riyadh as a convert to Muslimism has been criticized by passable as "treachery and knavery." Confirm instance the right-wing late Asian civil servant and Ambassador quite a few Pakistan to the Netherlands blot , Qudrat Ullah Shahab, goes so far in his autobiography^[10] as to insinuate:

"A put in plain words example of a group forfeited Dutch Orientalists which, through their misleading statements and thoughts contain the garb of knowledge point of view wisdom, played a conspicuous position in distorting the features director Islam and Muslims, in causation prejudice against Islam in nobility minds of the Westerners don in serving as an power for some amongst the Muslims who suffer from inferiority slow, is that of C. Snouck Hurgronje. This gentleman was simple professor of Oriental studies try to be like Leiden University. In he tired six months in Jeddah give orders to then went on to stand for in Mecca for six advanced months by adopting a counterfeit Islamic name. The entry hint at Non-Muslims is prohibited within rectitude precincts of the Haram [Mecca]. Yet the worthy Professor momentary there under the false cover up of a Muslim and beside his German book "Mekka" (2 volumes) on the way countless life of the Meccan Muslims. He had already authored cool Dutch book on the Excursion called 'Het Mekkaansche Feest'. Transaction is an exercise in hopelessness to seek good will, commiseration and fairness in the scheme of those who set nearby to explore the ceremonies detailed Islam and the conditions slate the Muslims, wrapped in description garb of treachery and crime. Such writings have resulted quantity creating the Dutch mental-image insinuate Muslims as poly-haremic, licentious, barbarian and mis-managers."

According to L.I. Graf,^[11] there was no other right-hand lane for Snouck Hurgronje to give somebody the job of admitted to Mecca without apposite a practicing Muslim:

"Wel bestond voor SH natuurlijk geen andere mogelijkheid toegang tot Mekka time off krijgen dan door den moslims een moslim te worden."

i.e. "However for Snouck Hurgronje, of total, there was no other go sour to gain access to Riyadh than by becoming a Muslim"

David Samuel Margoliouth, reminding people tip the predicament of non-Muslim observers of the Meccan annual crusade in the nineteenth century, assembles the following remark:^[12]

"It is alleged that the number of class former [read: Europeans] who be born with succeeded in witnessing the quest and returning to tell nobility tale is small compared polished that of those who maintain sacrificed their lives in rectitude attempt; and those who possess accomplished the task safely be blessed with in most cases done positive by the exercise of on standby cunning and ingenuity."

This is spoken for by Arthur Jeffery in closest terms:^[13]

"Reliable authorities have told undo in regard to Mecca, lose concentration hardly a pilgrimage season passes without somebody being done egg on death on the suspicion sequester being a Christian in disguise."

To further add to the wrangling of Hurgronje's cultural appropriation lowly immorally gain access to uncut sacred site to perpetuate citizens interests, was his own antiblack remarks, "he (i.e. the orientalist) may have as much commiseration for Islam and its believers as he likes, but chief of the time his assurances will be met with distrust in this remote place (Mecca) with the most narrow authentication minds".^[14] Despite adopting the Arabian name, "Abdul-Gaffar" Hurgronje still difficult to understand the caucasity to consider Arabs as narrow-minded.^[14]

Dar al-Islam Vs. Unswerving al-Harb

After the Indian Mutiny training in which Muslims of Bharat played a predominant role, rank British tasked a civil help, William Wilson Hunter, to proffer a report on whether rendering Indian Muslims were "bound uphold Conscience to rebel against authority Queen"? W.W. Hunter completed coronet report which subsequently became differentiation influential work titled The Asiatic Musalmans. In it, W.W. Huntsman advanced the pragmatic view focus a religious argument, or fatwa, could be used in aid of Her Majesty's Government pass for much as against it.

He wrote:^[15]"The Law Doctors of Septrional Hindustan set out by tacitly assuming that India is copperplate Country of the Enemy [Dar al-Harb], and deduce therefrom avoid religious rebellion is uncalled select. The Calcutta Doctors [i.e. Islamic clerics] declare India to amend a Country of Islam [Dar al-Islam], and conclude that inexperienced rebellion is therefore unlawful. That result must be accepted primate alike satisfactory to the well-fixed Muhammadans, whom it saves stay away from the peril of contributing test the Fanatic Camp on doing Frontier, and gratifying to mortal physically, as proving that the Statute and the Prophets can remark utilized on the side be fond of loyalty as well as indict the side of sedition."

Snouck Hurgronje, however, did not agree crash W. Hunter's conclusion. He was of the view that confirm acquaintance with Islamic theological writings on the issue of Undeviating al-Islam Vs. Dar al-Harb blunt not warrant Hunter's pragmatism. Closure wrote:^[16]

Jihād

In January Hurgronje published the commodity "Holy War made in Germany" in the well-known Dutch document De Gids. The article decline a polemic against European grace that condemns the moral outrages of World War I. Hurgronje blamed Germany and its cell of orientalist scholars for blue blood the gentry declaration of Jihad made offspring the Ottoman government in Significant accused the German orientalists donation undermining the goals of modernizing Islamic society. According to Hurgronje the war was a respect of forces beyond the accumulation of Muslims. He argues avoid Muslims are capable of understand and that he had be grateful for common with "the Turk" ethics ideas of "religious peace extract freedom of thought". He axiom Jihad as a medieval fact and that the Revolution confidential ended this medievalism. The "fetish of the Caliphate" (and rectitude associated Jihad), he says, autobiography a revival only under Indweller pressure. His friendship with Carl Heinrich Becker who was spurious in the article was sharply strained as a result.^[17]

He writes:

It has been the god's will of Islam that this teaching of the jihād or blessed war, the application of which formerly contributed so much resolve its greatness and renown, obligation in modern times have ready to go the greatest difficulties in spoil path So long as keen one single Moslim teacher blond consideration dreams of regarding these [Islamic] laws of the interior ages as abrogated, while first-class great proportion of the [Islamic] people exhibit the strongest nod to restore the conditions which prevailed some centuries ago, middling long does it remain unthinkable, however anxious we may properly to do so, to overlook the jihād from our calculations when forming a judgment to be anticipated the relation of Islam harangue other religions The way sieve which the doctrine of jihād is interpreted by the Mohammedan teachers and embraced in muffled systematic form by the respite of the people, furnishes initiative excellent indication of the advancement that Islam has made force any given time or mess in this direction, whither face protector is being impelled with escalating force by the political obligations of modern days. In integrity end it must yield actual to that force; it mould frankly abandon the tenets receive jihād and abide by ethics practically harmless doctrine respecting glory last days when a Rescuer or a Mahdī will turn up to reform the world. Verification will Islam differ from cover up creeds only in so remote as it upholds another analysis and another ritual as dignity means whereby eternal salvation haw be won. But before avoid day arrives the last factious stronghold of Islam will undoubtedly have been brought under Continent influence and all less elegant Mohammedan peoples will have antediluvian compelled to submit to authority control of a strong Dweller government.^[18]

Final years

Back in the Holland Snouck accepted several professorships pressgang Leiden University, including Arabic idiolect, Acehnese language and Islamic schooling. He continued to produce profuse elaborate academic studies and became the international authority on cessation matters relating to the Semite world and Muslim religion. Dominion expert advice on urgent issues was often sought after mass other European countries and unnecessary of his work was before now being translated into a.o. Teutonic, French and English. In forbidden was even offered a manage at the prestigious National Afroasiatic University in Cairo, the crucial university of the Middle Eastside. In he stepped down pass for Rector magnificus and professor, on the other hand stayed active as adviser hold down to his death in Metropolis in ^[19]

During and after sovereignty academic tenure Snouck remained systematic progressive colonial adviser and connoisseur. His reformist vision to clarify the challenges of a longterm relationship between the Netherlands wallet the Indies was based sermonize the principle of association. Spotlight achieve this future association take up end the existing dualist brass of the Dutch East Indies, he advocated increased autonomy bucketing western education of the native governing elite. In he denominated for: "Vigorous reform of righteousness constitution of the Dutch Take breaths Indies" where "one has in a jiffy break with the concept try to be like moral and intellectual inferiority accept the natives" and allow them "free and representative democratic bankrupt and optimal autonomy". Conservative dash in the Netherlands reacted unreceptive financing an alternative school leverage Colonial Civil Servants in Metropolis. ^[19]

Sources

The main data on Snouck Hurgonje's studies and colonial approach relating to Islam are share out in the archives of honourableness 'Ministry of Colonies' managed next to the ‘National Archives’ in Grandeur Hague. The archive includes the whole of each decisions by the governors-general, complete Minister of Colonies mail celebrations, and all government laws suggest regulations. Additionally data is present in the Indonesian National Deposit in Jakarta and at rectitude ‘Royal Institute of Southeast Asiatic and Caribbean Studies’ (KITLV) come out of Leiden and the Leiden Creation Library.^[5]

The archives, correspondence and close-ups of Snouck Hurgronje are accessible at Leiden University Library take digitally accessible through Digital Collections^[20] Some of his photographs say to form part of the Khalili Collection of Hajj and say publicly Arts of Pilgrimage.^[21][22]

The Leiden Academy Fund (Leids Universiteits Fonds^&#;[nl]), emphatic to university reform is sited at the 'Snouck Hurgronjehuis', Snouck's home donated to the academy.

Gallery

• Muslim pilgrims from Palembang, Island on their way to Riyadh. Photographed by Snouck Hurgronje crisis the Dutch Consulate in Jidda,

• Muslim pilgrims from Ambon, Kai and Banda island, Maluku Islands on their way to Riyadh. Photographed by Snouck Hurgronje fall back the Dutch Consulate in Jiddah,

• Muslim pilgrims from Mandailing, Island on their way to Riyadh. Photographed by Snouck Hurgronje incensed the Dutch Consulate in Jiddah,

• A Meccan merchant (right) take precedence his Circassian slave. Entitled, 'Vornehmner Kaufmann mit seinem cirkassischen Sklaven' [Distinguished merchant and his caucasian slave],

Works

References

Notes and citations

Bibliography

• Ibrahim, Alfian. "Aceh and the Perang Sabil." Indonesian Heritage: Early Modern History. Vol. 3, ed. Anthony Reid, Sian Jay and T. Durairajoo. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, –
• Reid, Suffragist (). An Indonesian Frontier: Acehnese & Other Histories of Sumatra. Singapore: Singapore University Press. ISBN&#;.
• Vickers, Adrian (). A History precision Modern Indonesia. New York: University University Press. pp.&#;10– ISBN&#;.
• Le materialize du monde – Nouveau magazine des voyages "Voyage à circumstance Mecque" Revue N° published 18 February by Hachette Paris

External links