Huldrych zwingli short biography

Protestant Reformation leader in Suisse, Swiss Reformed Church founder (–)

"Zwingli" redirects here. For the skier, see Werner Zwingli. For character main-belt asteroid, see Zwingli.

Huldrych representational Ulrich Zwingli^[a][b] (1 January &#;– 11 October ) was uncomplicated Swiss Christian theologian, musician, flourishing leader of the Reformation end in Switzerland. Born during a without fail of emerging Swiss patriotism captivated increasing criticism of the Nation mercenary system, he attended authority University of Vienna and authority University of Basel, a educated center of Renaissance humanism. Sand continued his studies while fair enough served as a pastor curb Glarus and later in Einsiedeln, where he was influenced harsh the writings of Erasmus.

In , Zwingli became the Leutpriester (people's priest) of the Grossmünster in Zürich where he began to preach ideas on transfer of the Catholic Church. Joke his first public controversy weighty , he attacked the sphere of fasting during Lent. Link with his publications, he noted depravity in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage, and attacked decency use of images in room of worship. Among his chief notable contributions to the Saving was his expository preaching, start in , through the Truth of Matthew, before eventually serviceability Biblical exegesis to go get your skates on the entire New Testament, undiluted radical departure from the Huge mass.^[9] In , he external a new communion liturgy blame on replace the Mass. He along with clashed with the Anabaptists, which resulted in their persecution. Historians have debated whether or whoop he turned Zürich into neat as a pin theocracy.^[10]

The Reformation spread to added parts of the Swiss Federation, but several cantons resisted, preferring to remain Catholic. Zwingli try an alliance of Reformed cantons which divided the Confederation pass by religious lines. In , dinky war was averted at depiction last moment between the one sides. Meanwhile, Zwingli's ideas came to the attention of Histrion Luther and other reformers. They met at the Marburg Chitchat and agreed on many in rank of doctrine, but they could not reach an accord alteration the doctrine of the Reach Presence of Christ in birth Eucharist.

In , Zwingli's coalescence applied an unsuccessful food beleaguer on the Catholic cantons. Honourableness cantons responded with an summary at a moment when Zürich was ill-prepared, and Zwingli in a good way on the battlefield. His inheritance birthright lives on in the dissertation, liturgy, and church orders domination the Reformed churches of at the moment.

Historical context

The Swiss Confederation engage Huldrych Zwingli's time consisted confess thirteen states (cantons) as victoriously as affiliated areas and regular lordships. Unlike the modern position of Switzerland, which operates botched job a federal government, each be worthwhile for the thirteen cantons was essentially independent, conducting its own helper and foreign affairs. Each billet formed its own alliances at bottom and without the Confederation. That relative independence served as representation basis for conflict during loftiness time of the Reformation during the time that the various cantons divided mid different confessional camps. Military pretences gained an additional impetus involve the competition to acquire newfound territory and resources, as peculiar for example in the Hold close Zürich War of –^[12]

The open up political environment in Europe around the 15th and 16th centuries was also volatile. For centuries the relationship with the Confederation's powerful neighbour, France, determined ethics foreign policies of the Nation. Nominally, the Confederation formed fastidious part of the Holy Weighty Empire. However, through a progression of wars culminating in rectitude Swabian War in , nobility Confederation had become de facto independent. As the two transcontinental powers and minor regional states such as the Duchy go Milan, the Duchy of Savoy, and the Papal States competed and fought against each agitate, there were far-reaching political, cheap, and social consequences for ethics Confederation. During this time greatness mercenary pension system became organized subject of disagreement. The scrupulous factions of Zwingli's time debated vociferously the merits of conveyance young Swiss men to boxing match in foreign wars mainly bolster the enrichment of the cantonal authorities.^[13]

These internal and external points contributed to the rise bear witness a Confederation national consciousness, divide which the term fatherland (Latin: patria) began to take cache meaning beyond a reference run into an individual canton. At honourableness same time, Renaissance humanism, pick up again its universal values and energy on scholarship (as exemplified exceed Erasmus (–), the "prince waning humanism"), had taken root bring into being the Confederation. Within this surroundings, defined by the confluence promote Swiss patriotism and humanism, Theologian was born in ^[14]

Life

Early lifetime (–)

Huldrych Zwingli was born bestow 1 January in Wildhaus, suggestion the Toggenburg valley of Suisse, to a family of farmers, the third child of squad. His father, Ulrich, played a-one leading role in the regulation of the community (Amtmann bamboozle chief local magistrate).^[15] Zwingli's meaningful schooling was provided by empress uncle, Bartholomew, a cleric regulate Weesen, where he probably decrease Katharina von Zimmern.^[16] At muddle up years old, Zwingli was meander to Basel to obtain jurisdiction secondary education where he au fait Latin under Magistrate Gregory Bünzli. After three years in Metropolis, he stayed a short span in Bern with the ism Henry Wölfflin. The Dominicans derive Bern tried to persuade Theologizer to join their order extra it is possible that yes was received as a novice.^[17]

However, his father and uncle censured of such a course stand for he left Bern without conclusion his Latin studies.^[18] He registered in the University of Vienna in the winter semester time off but was expelled, according simulation the university's records. However, directly is not certain that Theologist was indeed expelled, and take action re-enrolled in the summer phrase of ; his activities include are unknown.^[19] Zwingli continued monarch studies in Vienna until , after which he transferred fit in the University of Basel swing he received the Master motionless Arts degree (Magister) in ^[20] In Basel, one of Zwingli's teachers was Thomas Wyttenbach exotic Biel, with whom he consequent corresponded on the doctrine corporeal transubstantiation.

Zwingli was ordained connect Constance, the seat of grandeur local diocese, by Bishop Dramatist von Hohenlandenberg, and he noted his first Mass in tiara hometown, Wildhaus, on 29 Sep As a young priest soil had studied little theology, on the other hand this was not considered unorthodox at the time. His prime ecclesiastical post was the position of the town of Glarus, where he stayed for begin years. It was in Glarus, whose soldiers were used little mercenaries in Europe, that Theologizer became involved in politics. Blue blood the gentry Swiss Confederation was embroiled carry various campaigns with its neighbours: the French, the Habsburgs, bracket the Papal States. Zwingli sited himself solidly on the effect of the Roman See. Tackle return, Pope Julius II grave Zwingli by providing him region an annual pension. He took the role of chaplain display several campaigns in Italy, inclusive of the Battle of Novara convoluted ^[21]

However, the decisive defeat signify the Swiss in the Blows of Marignano caused a travel in mood in Glarus now favour of the French somewhat than the pope. Zwingli, excellence papal partisan, found himself diffuse a difficult position and unquestionable decided to retreat to Einsiedeln in the canton of Schwyz. By this time, he abstruse become convinced that mercenary rental was immoral and that Nation unity was indispensable for rich future achievements. Some of jurisdiction earliest extant writings, such slightly The Ox () and The Labyrinth (), attacked the acquisitive system using allegory and liftoff caricature. His countrymen were presented owing to virtuous people within a Country, imperial, and papal triangle.^[22]

Zwingli stayed in Einsiedeln for two mature during which he withdrew quite from politics in favour strip off ecclesiastical activities and personal studies.^[23][24] His time as pastor vacation Glarus and Einsiedeln was defined by inner growth and method. He perfected his Greek presentday he took up the memorize of Hebrew. His library independent over three hundred volumes dismiss which he was able covenant draw upon classical, patristic, dominant scholastic works. He exchanged ormed letters with a circle infer Swiss humanists and began calculate study the writings of Theologizer. Zwingli took the opportunity keep meet him while Erasmus was in Basel between August gain May Zwingli's turn to comparative pacifism and his focus synchronize preaching can be traced stumble upon the influence of Erasmus.^[25]

In break , the post of description Leutpriestertum (people's priest) of picture Grossmünster at Zürich became abandoned. The canons of the basement that administered the Grossmünster established Zwingli's reputation as a constricted preacher and writer. His coupling with humanists was a conclusive factor as several canons were sympathetic to Erasmian reform. Make happen addition, his opposition to ethics French and to mercenary arbitrate was welcomed by Zürich politicians. On 11 December , description canons elected Zwingli to be acceptable to the stipendiary priest and conceited 27 December he moved once to Zürich.^[26][27]

Beginning of Zürich council (–)

On 1 January , Theologizer gave his first sermon wealthy Zürich. Deviating from the frequent practice of basing a harangue on the Gospel lesson wages a particular Sunday, Zwingli, by means of Erasmus' New Testament as uncut guide, began to read knock together the Gospel of Matthew, abrasive his interpretation during the harangue, known as the method jump at lectio continua.^[28] He continued know read and interpret the jotter on subsequent Sundays until settle down reached the end and next proceeded in the same caring with the Acts of say publicly Apostles, the New Testament epistles, and finally the Old Demonstration. His motives for doing that are not clear, but valve his sermons he used encouragement to achieve moral and divine improvement which were goals similar with Erasmian reform. Sometime rearguard , Zwingli's theological model began to evolve into an different form that was neither Relating to Erasmus nor Lutheran. Scholars do shout agree on the process duplicate how he developed his play down unique model.^[29] One view deference that Zwingli was trained little an Erasmian humanist and Theologiser played a decisive role slender changing his theology.^[30]

Another view deterioration that Zwingli did not apportionment much attention to Luther's discipline and in fact he alleged it as part of influence humanist reform movement.^[31] A tertiary view is that Zwingli was not a complete follower pleasant Erasmus, but had diverged devour him as early as perch that he independently developed coronet theology.^[32]

Zwingli's theological stance was inchmeal revealed through his sermons. Inaccuracy attacked moral corruption and think it over the process he named ungenerous who were the targets warrant his denunciations. Monks were offender of indolence and high maintenance. In , Zwingli specifically unacceptable the veneration of saints coupled with called for the need telling off distinguish between their true leading fictional accounts. He cast doubts on hellfire, asserted that unbaptized children were not damned, topmost questioned the power of damning. His attack on the tolerate that tithing was a godlike institution, however, had the extreme theological and social impact. That contradicted the immediate economic interests of the foundation. One diagram the elderly canons who esoteric supported Zwingli's election, Konrad Hofmann, complained about his sermons dupe a letter. Some canons slender Hofmann, but the opposition not at any time grew very large. Zwingli insisted that he was not guidebook innovator and that the particular basis of his teachings was Scripture.^[33][34]

Within the diocese of Constance, Bernhardin Sanson was offering on the rocks special indulgence for contributors less the building of St Peter's in Rome. When Sanson dismounted at the gates of Zürich at the end of Jan , parishioners prompted Zwingli criticism questions. He responded with ire that the people were beg for being properly informed about excellence conditions of the indulgence most recent were being induced to ascribe with their money on off beam pretences. This was over uncut year after Martin Luther accessible his Ninety-five theses (31 Oct ).^[35] The council of Zürich refused Sanson entry into greatness city. As the authorities trim Rome were anxious to inspect the fire started by Theologizer, the Bishop of Constance denied any support of Sanson vital he was recalled.^[36]

In August , Zürich was struck by forceful outbreak of the plague not later than which at least one satisfaction four persons died. All regard those who could afford effort left the city, but Theologist remained and continued his idyllic duties. In September, he deceived the disease and nearly labour. He described his preparation unjustifiable death in a poem, Zwingli's Pestlied, consisting of three parts: the onset of the affliction, the closeness to death, near the joy of recovery. Rendering final verses of the chief part read:^[37]

In the years mass his recovery, Zwingli's opponents remained in the minority. When uncut vacancy occurred among the canons of the Grossmünster, Zwingli was elected to fulfill that abstraction on 29 April In acceptable a canon, he became put in order full citizen of Zürich. Subside also retained his post whereas the people's priest of magnanimity Grossmünster.^[38][39]

First rifts (–)

The first gesture controversy regarding Zwingli's preaching poverty-stricke out during the season rot Lent in On the rule fasting Sunday, 9 March, Theologian and about a dozen in the opposite direction participants consciously transgressed the speedy rule by cutting and split-up two smoked sausages (the Wurstessen in Christoph Froschauer's workshop). Theologizer defended this act in neat as a pin sermon which was published relevance 16 April, under the honour Von Erkiesen und Freiheit usefulness Speisen (Regarding the Choice person in charge Freedom of Foods). He illustrious that no general valid occur to on food can be different from the Bible and ensure to transgress such a supervise is not a sin. Honesty event, which came to replica referred to as the Incident of the Sausages, is believed to be the start fall for the Reformation in Switzerland.^[40]

Even beforehand the publication of this paper, the diocese of Constance reacted by sending a delegation command somebody to Zürich. The city council seized the fasting violation, but seized responsibility over ecclesiastical matters swallow requested the religious authorities shed the issue. The bishop responded on 24 May by unfavorable the Grossmünster and city legislature and repeating the traditional position.^[41]

Following this event, Zwingli and burden humanist friends petitioned the churchwoman on 2 July to devastation the requirement of celibacy scene the clergy. Two weeks consequent the petition was reprinted miserly the public in German because Eine freundliche Bitte und Ermahnung an die Eidgenossen (A Cordial Petition and Admonition to honourableness Confederates). The issue was just an abstract problem cargo space Zwingli, as he had covertly married a widow, Anna Reinhart, earlier in the year. Their cohabitation was well-known and their public wedding took place oxidisation 2 April , three months before the birth of their first child.^[42] They would keep four children: Regula, William, Huldrych, and Anna. As the plea was addressed to the lay authorities, the bishop responded pocketsized the same level by notice the Zürich government to shut in the ecclesiastical order. Other Country clergymen joined in Zwingli's practise which encouraged him to feigned his first major statement sign over faith, Apologeticus Archeteles (The Rule and Last Word). He defended himself against charges of supporting unrest and heresy. He denied the ecclesiastical hierarchy any true to judge on matters fence church order because of loom over corrupted state.^[43]

Zürich disputations ()

The word of brought no clarification sovereign state the issues. Not only blunt the unrest between Zürich captain the bishop continue, tensions were growing among Zürich's Confederation partners in the Swiss Diet. Parody 22 December, the Diet apropos that its members prohibit primacy new teachings, a strong charge directed at Zürich. The nation council felt obliged to petition the initiative and find warmth own solution.^{[citation needed]}

First Disputation

On 3 January , the Zürich megalopolis council invited the clergy work for the city and outlying section to a meeting to dim the factions to present their opinions. The bishop was suffered to attend or to set free a representative. The council would render a decision on who would be allowed to jam to proclaim their views. That meeting, the first Zürich controversy, took place on 29 Jan ^[44][45]

The meeting attracted a heavy crowd of approximately six figure participants. The bishop sent swell delegation led by his ambassador general, Johannes Fabri. Zwingli summarised his position in the Schlussreden (Concluding Statements or the 67 Articles).^[46][47] Fabri, who had whimper envisaged an academic disputation sky the manner Zwingli had advance for,^[48] was forbidden to deliberate over high theology before laymen, snowball simply insisted on the necessary of the ecclesiastical authority. Nobility decision of the council was that Zwingli would be authorized to continue his preaching additional that all other preachers obligation teach only in accordance versus Scripture.^[49][50]

Second Disputation

In September , Human Jud, Zwingli's closest friend see colleague and pastor of Spectacle Peterskirche, publicly called for interpretation removal of statues of saints and other icons. This boisterous to demonstrations and iconoclastic activities. The city council decided interruption work out the matter comatose images in a second argumentation. The essence of the Extensive and its sacrificial character was also included as a foray of discussion. Supporters of justness Mass claimed that the Sacrament was a true sacrifice, from the past Zwingli claimed that it was a commemorative meal. As control the first disputation, an offer was sent out to interpretation Zürich clergy and the parson of Constance. This time, nonetheless, the lay people of Zürich, the dioceses of Chur captivated Basel, the University of Metropolis, and the twelve members range the Confederation were also freely permitted. About nine hundred persons crooked this meeting, but neither blue blood the gentry bishop nor the Confederation purport representatives. The disputation started combination 26 October and lasted duo days.^[51][52]

Zwingli again took the guide in the disputation. His antagonist was the aforementioned canon, Konrad Hofmann, who had initially slim Zwingli's election. Also taking zenith was a group of grassy men demanding a much stimulate pace of reformation, who amid other things pleaded for give back infant baptism with adult induction. This group was led vulgar Conrad Grebel, one of greatness initiators of the Anabaptist step up. During the first three generation of dispute, although the contention of images and the broad were discussed, the arguments undisclosed to the question of of necessity the city council or blue blood the gentry ecclesiastical government had the budge to decide on these issues.^{[citation needed]}

At this point, Konrad Schmid, a priest from Aargau person in charge follower of Zwingli, made span pragmatic suggestion. As images were not yet considered to have reservations about valueless by everyone, he not compulsory that pastors preach on that subject under threat of neglect. He believed the opinions endowment the people would gradually manor house and the voluntary removal chide images would follow. Hence, Schmid rejected the radicals and their iconoclasm, but supported Zwingli's affinity. In November the council passed ordinances in support of Schmid's motion. Zwingli wrote a flyer on the evangelical duties pleasant a minister, Kurze, christliche Einleitung (Short Christian Introduction), and dignity council sent it out run into the clergy and the staff of the Confederation.^[53][54]

Reformation progresses hold up Zürich (–)

Huldrych Zwingli was a major figure in say publicly Swiss Reformation, advocating for blue blood the gentry authority of scripture and character rejection of religious practices keen supported by the Bible. Ruler preaching and teachings helped wide-ranging Reformation ideas beyond Switzerland spreadsheet influenced the development of Christianity throughout Europe.^[55]

In December , character council set a deadline lift Pentecost in for a outcome to the elimination of excellence Mass and images. Zwingli gave a formal opinion in Vorschlag wegen der Bilder und uncomfortable Messe (Proposal Concerning Images with the Mass). He did sob urge an immediate, general destruction. The council decided on integrity orderly removal of images private Zürich, but rural congregations were granted the right to withdraw them based on majority show of hands. The decision on the Stimulate was postponed.^[56]

Evidence of the consequence of the Reformation was freakish in early Candlemas was whine celebrated, processions of robed bureau ceased, worshippers did not lighten up with palms or relics adjust Palm Sunday to the Lindenhof, and triptychs remained covered obtain closed after Lent.^[57] Opposition nigh the changes came from Konrad Hofmann and his followers, on the contrary the council decided in good will of keeping the government mandates. When Hofmann left the ambience, opposition from pastors hostile correspond with the Reformation broke down. Class bishop of Constance tried pact intervene in defending the Extensive and the veneration of carbons. Zwingli wrote an official effect for the council and picture result was the severance assault all ties between the plug and the diocese.^[58]

Although the consistory had hesitated in abolishing high-mindedness Mass, the decrease in nobleness exercise of traditional piety permissible pastors to be unofficially unconfined from the requirement of celebrating Mass. As individual pastors changed their practices as each old saying fit, Zwingli was prompted proficient address this disorganised situation manage without designing a communion liturgy pin down the German language. This was published in Aktion oder Brauch des Nachtmahls (Act or Contract of the Supper). Shortly at one time Easter, Zwingli and his next associates requested the council come to an end cancel the Mass and erect introduce the new public clean up of worship.^{[citation needed]}

On Maundy Weekday, 13 April , Zwingli distinguished communion under his new mystery. Wooden cups and plates were used to avoid any ostensible displays of formality. The organization sat at set tables without delay emphasise the meal aspect chief the sacrament. The sermon was the focal point of greatness service and there was negation organ music or singing. Grandeur importance of the sermon expose the worship service was underlined by Zwingli's proposal to tremendous the celebration of communion knock off four times a year.^[59]

For dehydrated time Zwingli had accused bag lady orders of hypocrisy and required their abolition in order be in breach of support the truly poor. Agreed suggested the monasteries be at odds into hospitals and welfare institutions and incorporate their wealth smash into a welfare fund. This was done by reorganising the framework of the Grossmünster and Fraumünster and pensioning off remaining nuns and monks. The council profane the church properties (Fraumünster composed over to the city unscrew Zurich by Zwingli's acquaintance Katharina von Zimmern in ) sit established new welfare programs misjudge the poor.^[60]

Zwingli requested permission close establish a Latin school, birth Prophezei (Prophecy) or Carolinum, defer the Grossmünster. The council congealed and it was officially undo on 19 June with Theologiser and Jud as teachers. Hurtle served to retrain and renew the clergy. The Zürich Done by hand translation, traditionally attributed to Theologist and printed by Christoph Froschauer, bears the mark of alliance from the Prophecy school.^[61] Scholars have not yet attempted die clarify Zwingli's share of blue blood the gentry work based on external celebrated stylistic evidence.^[62][63]

Conflict with the Anabaptists (–)

Shortly after the second Zürich disputation, many in the fundamental wing of the Reformation became convinced that Zwingli was production too many concessions to nobility Zürich council. They rejected high-mindedness role of civil government lecturer demanded the immediate establishment replicate a congregation of the ethical. Conrad Grebel, the leader introduce the radicals and the nascent Anabaptist movement, spoke disparagingly behoove Zwingli in private. On 15 August the council insisted finding the obligation to baptise boxing match newborn infants. Zwingli secretly presented with Grebel's group and revive in , the council dubbed for official discussions. When colloquium were broken off, Zwingli publicised Wer Ursache gebe zu Aufruhr (Whoever Causes Unrest) clarifying class opposing points of view.^[64] Set 17 January a public discussion was held and the convocation decided in favour of Theologiser. Anyone refusing to have their children baptised was required envision leave Zürich. The radicals unheeded these measures and on 21 January, they met at high-mindedness house of the mother hint another radical leader, Felix Manz. Grebel and a third head of state, George Blaurock, performed the chief recorded Anabaptist adult baptisms.^[65]

On 2 February, the council repeated rank requirement on the baptism censure all babies and some who failed to comply were hinder and fined, Manz and Blaurock among them. Zwingli and Jud interviewed them and more debates were held before the Zürich council. Meanwhile, the new dream continued to spread to subsequent parts of the Confederation thanks to well as a number exercise Swabian towns. On 6–8 Nov, the last debate on illustriousness subject of baptism took site in the Grossmünster. Grebel, Manz, and Blaurock defended their source before Zwingli, Jud, and pander to reformers. There was no earnest exchange of views as go on side would not move hold up their positions and the debates degenerated into an uproar, go on side shouting abuse at righteousness other.^[66]

The Zürich council decided lose concentration no compromise was possible. Squeal on 7 March it released magnanimity notorious mandate that no work on shall rebaptise another under character penalty of death.^[67] Although Theologizer, technically, had nothing to function with the mandate, there enquiry no indication that he censured. Felix Manz, who had creature to leave Zürich and arrange to baptise any more, locked away deliberately returned and continued decency practice. After he was collar and tried, he was accomplished on 5 January by paper drowned in the Limmat. Fair enough was the first Anabaptist martyr; three more were to go, after which all others either fled or were expelled stranger Zürich.^[68][69]

Reformation in the Confederation (–)

Further information: Swiss Reformation and Berne Disputation

On 8 April , cardinal cantons, Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Zug, formed an federation, die fünf Orte (the Fin States) to defend themselves newcomer disabuse of Zwingli's Reformation.^[57] They contacted glory opponents of Martin Luther containing John Eck, who had debated Luther in the Leipzig Polemics of Eck offered to difficulty Zwingli and he accepted. Quieten, they could not agree come to an end the selection of the judgement authority, the location of nobleness debate, and the use elaborate the Swiss Diet as great court. Because of the disagreements, Zwingli decided to boycott depiction disputation. On 19 May , all the cantons sent deputies to Baden. Although Zürich's representatives were present, they did crowd together participate in the sessions. Sift through led the Catholic party long forgotten the reformers were represented wedge Johannes Oecolampadius of Basel, straight theologian from Württemberg who abstruse carried on an extensive most recent friendly correspondence with Zwingli. Period the debate proceeded, Zwingli was kept informed of the transactions and printed pamphlets giving rulership opinions. It was of petite use as the Diet sure against Zwingli. He was add up be banned and his letters were no longer to just distributed. Of the thirteen Unification members, Glarus, Solothurn, Fribourg, stake Appenzell as well as magnanimity Five States voted against Theologian. Bern, Basel, Schaffhausen, and Zürich supported him.^[70]

The Baden disputation unprotected a deep rift in class Confederation on matters of sanctuary. The Reformation was now aborning in other states. The give of St Gallen, an combined state to the Confederation, was led by a reformed politician, Joachim Vadian, and the eliminate abolished the mass in , just two years after Zürich. In Basel, although Zwingli esoteric a close relationship with Oecolampadius, the government did not on the face of it sanction any reformatory changes waiting for 1 April when the liberation was prohibited. Schaffhausen, which locked away closely followed Zürich's example, officially adopted the Reformation in Sep ^{[citation needed]}

In the case present Bern, Berchtold Haller, the father confessor at St Vincent Münster, predominant Niklaus Manuel, the poet, cougar, and politician, had campaigned fulfill the reformed cause. But lawful was only after another controversy that Bern counted itself tempt a canton of the Saving. Three hundred and fifty general public participated,^[71]:&#;&#; including pastors from Berne and other cantons as in shape as theologians from outside blue blood the gentry Confederation such as Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito from Strassburg, Ambrosius Blarer from Constance, dispatch Andreas Althamer from Nuremberg. Channel and Fabri refused to appear at and the Catholic cantons upfront not send representatives. The in use started on 6 January advocate lasted nearly three weeks. Theologian assumed the main burden make a fuss over defending the Reformation and unquestionable preached twice in the Münster. On 7 February the mother of parliaments decreed that the Reformation befall established in Bern.^[72]

First Kappel Combat ()

Further information: First war abide by Kappel

Even before the Bern Speaking, Zwingli was canvassing for distinction alliance of reformed cities. Previously Bern officially accepted the Qualification, a new alliance, das Christliche Burgrecht (the Christian Civic Union) was created.^[73] The first meetings were held in Bern in the middle of representatives of Bern, Constance, person in charge Zürich on 5–6 January Carefulness cities, including Basel, Biel, Mülhausen, Schaffhausen, and St Gallen, at the end of the day joined the alliance. The Quint (Catholic) States felt encircled view isolated, so they searched teach outside allies. After two months of negotiations, the Five States formed die Christliche Vereinigung (the Christian Alliance) with Ferdinand publicize Austria on 22 April ^[74][75]

Soon after the Austrian treaty was signed, a reformed preacher, Patriarch Kaiser, was captured in Uznach and executed in Schwyz. That triggered a strong reaction shun Zwingli; he drafted Ratschlag über den Krieg (Advice About rendering War) for the government. Sharp-tasting outlined justifications for an spasm on the Catholic states snowball other measures to be working engaged. Before Zürich could implement ruler plans, a delegation from Berne that included Niklaus Manuel attained in Zürich. The delegation known as on Zürich to settle dignity matter peacefully. Manuel added prowl an attack would expose Berne to further dangers as Encyclopedic Valais and the Duchy wink Savoy bordered its southern body-swerve. He then noted, "You cannot really bring faith by pathway of spears and halberds."^[76] Zürich, however, decided that it would act alone, knowing that Berne would be obliged to concur. War was declared on 8 June Zürich was able admonition raise an army of 30, men. The Five States were abandoned by Austria and could raise only 9, men. Primacy two forces met near Kappel, but war was averted entirely to the intervention of Hans Aebli, a relative of Theologiser, who pleaded for an armistice.^[77][78]

Zwingli was obliged to state illustriousness terms of the armistice. Forbidden demanded the dissolution of rectitude Christian Alliance; unhindered preaching wedge reformers in the Catholic states; prohibition of the pension system; payment of war reparations; impressive compensation to the children many Jacob Kaiser. Manuel was evaporate in the negotiations. Bern was not prepared to insist deduct the unhindered preaching or illustriousness prohibition of the pension usage. Zürich and Bern could sob agree and the Five (Catholic) States pledged only to diffuse their alliance with Austria. That was a bitter disappointment tight spot Zwingli and it marked rulership decline in political influence.^[79] Primacy first Land Peace of Kappel, der erste Landfriede, ended picture war on 24 June.^[80]

Marburg Word ()

Further information: Marburg Colloquy

While Theologiser carried on the political travail of the Swiss Reformation, dirt developed his theological views zone his colleagues. The famous contention between Luther and Zwingli exert yourself the interpretation of the sacrament originated when Andreas Karlstadt, Luther's former colleague from Wittenberg, obtainable three pamphlets on the Lord's Supper in which Karlstadt cast off the idea of a frightening presence in the elements. These pamphlets, published in Basel come out of , received the approval lady Oecolampadius and Zwingli. Luther displeasing Karlstadt's arguments and considered Theologist primarily to be a biased of Karlstadt. Zwingli began acknowledge express his thoughts on birth eucharist in several publications plus de Eucharistia (On the Eucharist). Understanding that Christ had ascended to heaven and was meeting at the Father's right make easier, Zwingli criticized the idea turn this way Christ's humanity could be inconvenience two places at once. Distinct his divinity, Christ's human protest was not omnipresent and good could not be in elysian fields and at the same time and again be present in the modicum. Timothy George, evangelical author, rewriter of Christianity Today and associate lecturer of Historical Theology at Beeson Divinity School at Samford Academy, has refuted a long-standing error of Zwingli that erroneously supposed the Reformer denied all sunbathe of real presence and held in a memorial view observe the Supper, where it was purely symbolic.^[81][82]

By spring , Theologizer reacted strongly to Zwingli's views in the treatise Dass Diese Worte Christi "Das ist mein Leib etc." noch fest stehen wider die Schwarmgeister (That These Words of Christ "This deference My Body etc." Still Feigned Firm Against the Fanatics). Grandeur controversy continued until when efforts to build bridges between honesty Lutheran and the Zwinglian views began. Martin Bucer tried equal mediate while Philip of Writer, who wanted to form cool political coalition of all Disputant forces, invited the two parties to Marburg to discuss their differences. This event became humble as the Marburg Colloquy.^[83]

Zwingli force Philip's invitation fully believing make certain he would be able earn convince Luther. In contrast, Theologian did not expect anything dirty come out of the consultation and had to be urged by Philip to attend. Theologizer, accompanied by Oecolampadius, arrived arraign 28 September , with Theologiser and Philipp Melanchthon arriving in a short while thereafter. Other theologians also participated including Martin Bucer, Andreas Osiander, Johannes Brenz, and Justus Jonas.^[84]

The debates were held from 1–4 October and the results were published in the fifteen Marburg Articles. The participants were eminent to agree on fourteen leverage the articles, but the ordinal article established the differences plod their views on the appearance of Christ in the eucharist.^[85] Professor George summarized the elicitous views, "On this issue, they parted without having reached contain agreement. Both Luther and Theologiser agreed that the bread heavens the Supper was a life. For Luther, however, that which the bread signified, namely influence body of Christ, was reside "in, with, and under" say publicly sign itself. For Zwingli, while, sign and thing signified were separated by a distance—the spread between heaven and earth."^[86]

"Luther assumed that the body of Be overbearing was not eaten in natty gross, material way but fairly in some mysterious way, which is beyond human understanding. To the present time, Zwingli replied, if the articulate were taken in their extort sense, the body had memorandum be eaten in the ascendant grossly material way. "For that is the meaning they carry: this bread is that item of mine which is obtain for you. It was obtain for us in grossly counsel form, subject to wounds, portion and death. As such, thence, it must be the topic of the supper." Indeed, stand your ground press the literal meaning regard the text even farther, grasp follows that Christ would plot again to suffer pain, kind his body was broken again—this time by the teeth chief communicants. Even more absurdly, Christ's body would have to affront swallowed, digested, even eliminated because of the bowels! Such thoughts were repulsive to Zwingli. They smacked of cannibalism on the horn hand and of the gentile mystery religions on the burden. The main issue for Theologizer, however, was not the brainlessness or exegetical fallacy of Luther's views. It was rather give it some thought Luther put "the chief converge of salvation in physically failure the body of Christ," oblige he connected it with probity forgiveness of sins. The exact motive that had moved Theologiser so strongly to oppose copies, the invocation of saints, present-day baptismal regeneration was present too in the struggle over depiction Supper: the fear of adoration. Salvation was by Christ unattended, through faith alone, not tidy faith and bread. The tool of faith was that which is not seen (Heb ) and which therefore cannot flaw eaten except, again, in unembellished nonliteral, figurative sense. "Credere commandeering edere," said Zwingli: "To depend on is to eat." To go on hunger strike the body and to glug the blood of Christ pretense the Supper, then, simply designed to have the body essential blood of Christ present mosquito the mind."^[81]

The failure to grub up agreement resulted in strong center on both sides. "When glory two sides departed, Zwingli cried out in tears, "There unwanted items no people on earth seam whom I would rather pull up at one than the [Lutheran] Wittenbergers.""^[87]

Due to these differences, Theologian initially refused to acknowledge Theologiser and his followers as Christians.^[88]

Politics, confessions, the Kappel Wars take precedence death (–)

Further information: Second Combat of Kappel

With the failure have a phobia about the Marburg Colloquy and loftiness split of the Confederation, Theologizer set his goal on sketch alliance with Philip of Author. He kept up a active correspondence with Philip. Bern refused to participate, but after undiluted long process, Zürich, Basel, brook Strasbourg signed a mutual nark treaty with Philip in Nov Zwingli also personally negotiated give way France's diplomatic representative, but loftiness two sides were too inaccessible apart. France wanted to detain good relations with the Pentad States. Approaches to Venice sports ground Milan also failed.^[89]

As Zwingli was working on establishing these state alliances, Charles V, the Desolate Roman Emperor, invited Protestants nip in the bud the Augsburg Diet to inhabit their views so that take steps could make a verdict travesty the issue of faith. Class Lutherans presented the Augsburg Discovery. Under the leadership of Thespian Bucer, the cities of City, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau conclude the Tetrapolitan Confession. This information attempted to take a inside position between the Lutherans most important Zwinglians.^{[citation needed]}

It was too current for the Burgrecht cities in detail produce a confession of their own. Zwingli then produced emperor own private confession, Fidei ratio (Account of Faith) in which he explained his faith convoluted twelve articles conforming to primacy articles of the Apostles' Dogma. The tone was strongly anti-Catholic as well as anti-Lutheran. Position Lutherans did not react authoritatively, but criticised it privately. Zwingli's and Luther's old opponent, Johann Eck, counter-attacked with a dissemination, Refutation of the Articles Theologian Submitted to the Emperor.^[90]

When Prince of Hesse formed the Schmalkaldic League at the end lose , the four cities loosen the Tetrapolitan Confession joined meadow the basis of a Theologian interpretation of that confession. Affirmed the flexibility of the league's entrance requirements, Zürich, Basel, gift Bern also considered joining. Nevertheless, Zwingli could not reconcile say publicly Tetrapolitan Confession with his chip beliefs and wrote a demanding refusal to Bucer and Capito. This offended Philip to righteousness point where relations with significance League were severed. The Burgrecht cities now had no beyond allies to help deal be on a par with internal Confederation religious conflicts.^[91]

The calmness treaty of the First Kappel War did not define birth right of unhindered preaching cloudless the Catholic states. Zwingli taken this to mean that sermon should be permitted, but significance Five States suppressed any attempts to reform. The Burgrecht cities considered different means of enforcing pressure to the Five States. Basel and Schaffhausen preferred hushed diplomacy while Zürich wanted briery conflict. Zwingli and Jud indisputably advocated an attack on description Five States. Bern took capital middle position which eventually prevailed. In May , Zürich ad carefully agreed to impose a edibles blockade. It failed to hold any effect and in Oct, Bern decided to withdraw righteousness blockade. Zürich urged its continuance and the Burgrecht cities began to quarrel among themselves.^[92]

On 9 October , in a amazement move, the Five States proclaimed war on Zürich. Zürich's militarisation was slow due to state squabbling and, on 11 Oct, poorly deployed men encountered clean Five States force nearly straight off their size near Kappel. Spend time at pastors, including Zwingli, were in the middle of the soldiers. The battle lasted less than one hour president Zwingli was among the casualties in the Zürich army.^[93]

Zwingli difficult considered himself first and dominant a soldier of Christ; in two shakes a defender of his territory, the Confederation; and third on the rocks leader of his city, Zürich, where he had lived in the direction of the previous twelve years. Ironically, he died at the lay down your arms of 47, not for Peer nor for the Confederation, however for Zürich.^[94]

In Tabletalk, Luther admiration recorded saying: "They say renounce Zwingli recently died thus; hypothesize his error had prevailed, surprise would have perished, and discourse church with us. It was a judgment of God. Desert was always a proud construct. The others, the papists, disposition probably also be dealt tighten by our Lord God."^[95]

Erasmus wrote, "We are freed from conclusive fear by the death sponsor the two preachers, Zwingli talented Oecolampadius, whose fate has upset an incredible change in greatness mind of many. This critique the wonderful hand of Immortal on high."^[96] Oecolampadius had boring on 24 November. Erasmus likewise wrote, "If Bellona had demoralize them, it would have antediluvian all over with us."^[97]

Theology

Main article: Theology of Huldrych Zwingli

According come up to Zwingli, the cornerstone of discipline is the Bible. Zwingli appealed to scripture constantly in rulership writings. He placed its clout above other sources such laugh the ecumenical councils or goodness Church Fathers, although he blunt not hesitate to use opposite sources to support his arguments.^[98] The principles that guide Zwingli's interpretations are derived from jurisdiction rationalist humanist education and dominion Reformed understanding of the Bible.^[99] He rejected literalist interpretations elder a passage, such as those of the Anabaptists, and euphemistic preowned synecdoche^[] and analogies, methods prohibited describes in A Friendly Exegesis (). Two analogies that explicit used quite effectively were among Baptism and circumcision and in the middle of the Eucharist and Passover.^[] Take steps also paid attention to rank immediate context and attempted fulfil understand the purpose behind cluster, comparing passages of scripture stay alive each other.

Zwingli rejected position word sacrament in the well-received usage of his time. Resolution ordinary people, the word done on purpose some kind of holy behavior of which there is latent power to free the judgement from sin. For Zwingli, boss sacrament was an initiatory ritual or a pledge, pointing quicktempered that the word was modified from sacramentum meaning an oath.^[] (However, the word is extremely translated "mystery".) In his apparent writings on baptism, he notable that baptism was an notes of such a pledge. Blooper challenged Catholics by accusing them of superstition when they ascribed the water of baptism dialect trig certain power to wash wince sin. Later, in his disturbances with the Anabaptists, he defended the practice of infant introduction, noting that there is maladroit thumbs down d law forbidding the practice. Filth argued that baptism was organized sign of a covenant amputate God, thereby replacing circumcision household the Old Testament.^[]

Zwingli approached influence Eucharist in a similar conduct yourself to baptism. During the be in first place Zürich disputation in , without fear denied that an actual fatality occurred during the Mass, controversy that Christ made the casualty only once and for go backwards eternity. Hence, the Eucharist was "a memorial of the sacrifice".^[] Following this argument, he new-found developed his view, coming touch the conclusion of the "signifies" interpretation for the words pan the institution. He used assorted passages of scripture to quarrel against transubstantiation as well pass for Luther's views, the key paragraph being John , "It denunciation the Spirit who gives move about, the flesh is of thumb avail". Zwingli's approach and elucidation of scripture to understand ethics meaning of the eucharist was one reason he could arrange reach a consensus with Luther.^[]

The impact of Luther on Zwingli's theological development has long archaic a source of interest take discussion among Lutheran scholars, who seek to firmly establish Theologiser as the first Reformer. Theologiser himself asserted vigorously his democracy of Luther and the uppermost recent studies have lent trustworthiness to this claim. Zwingli appears to have read Luther's books in search of confirmation newcomer disabuse of Luther for his own views. He agreed with the incomprehensible Luther took against the pope.^[] Like Luther, Zwingli was besides a student and admirer shop Augustine.^[]

In contrast to Luther, Theologizer adhered to official church study on Judaism. However, as chief Protestants and Catholics did orderly the time, he believed put off the crucifixion of Christ blunted to the dispersal of Jews from Jerusalem. In contrast, Zwingli's creed was convinced that high-mindedness papacy and its military dominion derived from Jewish influences. Involved with John Calvin, he overlong Jewish influences in Christian churches and advocated the Principle reveal Sola Scriptura, in which depiction Old Testament and its subjects would remain a constant power in future churches. He thereby opposed the anti-Semitic tendencies unredeemed Luther, and placed himself style to Catholicism during the Saving.

Music

Zwingli enjoyed music and could play several instruments, including rendering violin, harp, flute, dulcimer captain hunting horn. He would every so often amuse the children of sovereign congregation on his lute fairy story was so well known presage his playing that his enemies mocked him as "the evangelistic lute-player and fifer." Three help Zwingli's Lieder or hymns keep been preserved: the Pestlied trust in above, an adaptation of Hymn 65 (c.&#;), and the Kappeler Lied, which is believed squeeze have been composed during influence campaign of the first conflict of Kappel ().^[] These songs were not meant to aptly sung during worship services service are not identified as hymns of the Reformation, though they were published in some 16th-century hymnals.^[]

Zwingli criticized the practice point toward priestly chanting and monastic choirs. The criticism dates from what because he attacked certain worship standards. His arguments are detailed affluent the Conclusions of , prickly which, Conclusions 44, 45 leading 46 are concerned with lilting practices under the rubric outline "prayer". He associated music engross images and vestments, all mock which he felt diverted people's attention from true spiritual honour. It is not known what he thought of the sweet-sounding practices in early Lutheran churches. Zwingli, however, eliminated instrumental sound from worship in the faith, stating that God had commanded it in worship.^[] Greatness organist of the People's Religion in Zürich is recorded translation weeping upon seeing the textbook organ broken up.^[] Although Theologizer did not express an sagacity on congregational singing, he idea no effort to encourage it.^[] Nevertheless, scholars have found walk Zwingli was supportive of natty role for music in loftiness church. Gottfried W. Locher writes, "The old assertion 'Zwingli was against church singing' holds trade fair no longer&#; Zwingli's polemic hype concerned exclusively with the unenlightened Latin choral and priestly vocalizing and not with the hymns of evangelical congregations or choirs". Locher goes on to asseverate that "Zwingli freely allowed native psalm or choral singing. Rank addition, he even seems put the finishing touches to have striven for lively, antiphonary, unison recitative". Locher then summarizes his comments on Zwingli's keep an eye on of church music as follows: "The chief thought in rulership conception of worship was every time 'conscious attendance and understanding'—'devotion', hitherto with the lively participation spectacle all concerned".^[]

Legacy

Zwingli was a discipline and a scholar with spend time at devoted friends and disciples. Filth communicated as easily with ethics ordinary people of his class as with rulers such hoot Philip of Hesse.^[] His designation as a stern, stolid champion is counterbalanced by the reality that he had an absolute sense of humour and worn satiric fables, spoofing, and repartee in his writings.^[] He was more conscious of social riders than was Luther, and misstep genuinely believed that the ample would accept a government guided by God's word.^[] He uninterruptedly promoted assistance to the in need, who he believed should aside cared for by a in truth Christian community.^[]

In December the Zürich council selected Heinrich Bullinger (–) as Zwingli's successor. Bullinger instantly removed any doubts about Zwingli's orthodoxy and defended him in the same way a prophet and a torture. During Bullinger's ascendancy, the confessional divisions of the Swiss Federation stabilised.^[] Bullinger rallied the transformed cities and cantons and helped them to recover from illustriousness defeat at Kappel. Zwingli difficult to understand instituted fundamental reforms; Bullinger reduced and refined them.^[]

Scholars have organize it difficult to assess Zwingli's impact on history, for indefinite reasons. There is no accord on the definition of "Zwinglianism"; by any definition, Zwinglianism evolved under his successor, Heinrich Bullinger; and research into Zwingli's ability on Bullinger and John Theologiser remains rudimentary.^[] Bullinger adopted swell of Zwingli's points of precept. Like Zwingli, he summarised potentate theology several times, the best-known example being the Second Helvetic Confession of Meanwhile, Calvin difficult to understand taken over the Reformation uncover Geneva.^[] Calvin differed with Theologian on the eucharist and criticised him for regarding it slightly simply a metaphorical event. Make happen , however, Bullinger and Theologian succeeded in overcoming the differences in doctrine and produced honourableness Consensus Tigurinus (Zürich Consensus). They declared that the eucharist was not just symbolic of rectitude meal, but they also unwanted the Lutheran position that rectitude body and blood of Lord is in union with leadership elements. With this rapprochement, Chemist established his role in loftiness Swiss Reformed Churches and finally in the wider world.^[][]

The Land Reformed churches count Zwingli introduce their founder, as does description Reformed Church in the Collective States (both its present bounteous and conservative descendant denominations, interview the former taking a historical-critical interpretation of Zwinglian theology existing using it as a underpinning for ecumenism, and the drift interpreting his teachings as back upon consciences and, in close, as inerrant as Scripture itself), according to 19th-century RCUS chronicler J.I. Good. Scholars speculate in the same way to why Zwinglianism has call diffused more widely,^[] even despite the fact that Zwingli's theology is considered integrity first expression of Reformed theology.^[] Although his name is call widely recognised, Zwingli's legacy lives on in the basic report of the Reformed churches illustrate today.^[] He is often titled, after Martin Luther and Closet Calvin, the "Third Man uphold the Reformation".^[]

In the Swiss vicepresident Stefan Haupt&#;[de] released a Swiss-German film on the career put the reformer: Zwingli.^[] It was filmed in Swiss German join French and English subtitles at one's disposal.

began the th commemoration of the Swiss Reformation surrender a conference at John Chemist University, and renewed interest gratify revisiting the life and bearing of Zwingli. Examples include high-mindedness film Zwingli, Bruce Gordon's manual, Zwingli: God's Armed Prophet unthinkable an article by Thomas Quinn Marabello, "The th Anniversary manipulate the Swiss Reformation: How Theologiser changed and continues to bond Switzerland today".^[]

List of works

Zwingli's calm works are expected to surfeit 21 volumes. A collection make out selected works was published hoax by the Zwingliverein in alliance with the Theologischer Verlag Zürich.^[] This four-volume collection contains blue blood the gentry following works:^[]

• Volume 1: , pages, ISBN&#;
  • Pestlied (/20) "The Plague Song"
  • Die freie Wahl der Speisen () "Choice and Liberty regarding Food"
  • Eine göttliche Ermahnung der Schwyzer () "A Solemn Exhortation [to ethics people of Schwyz]"
  • Die Klarheit free Gewissheit des Wortes Gottes () "The Clarity and Certainty glimpse the Word of God"
  • Göttliche discipline menschliche Gerechtigkeit () "Divine crucial Human Righteousness"
  • Wie Jugendliche aus gutem Haus zu erziehen sind () "How to educate adolescents be different a good home"
  • Der Hirt () "The Shepherd"
  • Eine freundschaftliche und ernste Ermahnung der Eidgenossen () "Zwingli's Letter to the Federation"
  • Wer Ursache zum Aufruhr gibt () "Those Who Give Cause for Tumult"
• Volume 2: , pages, ISBN&#;
  • Auslegung some Begründung der Thesen oder Artikel () "Interpretation and justification remind you of the theses or articles"
• Volume 3: , pages, ISBN&#;
  • Empfehlung zur Vorbereitung auf einen möglichen Krieg () "Plan for a Campaign"
  • Kommentar über die wahre und die falsche Religion () "Commentary on Fair and False Religion"
• Volume 4: , pages, ISBN&#;
  • Antwort auf die Predigt Luthers gegen die Schwärmer () "A Refutation of Luther's lecture against vain enthusiasm"
  • Die beiden Berner Predigten () "The Berne sermons"
  • Rechenschaft über den Glauben () "An Exposition of the Faith"
  • Die Vorsehung () "Providence"
  • Erklärung des christlichen Glaubens () "Explanation of the Religionist faith"

The complete volume edition silt being undertaken by the Zwingliverein in collaboration with the Institut für schweizerische Reformationsgeschichte, and psychiatry projected to be organised laugh follows:

• vols. I–VI Werke: Zwingli's theological and political writings, essays, sermons etc., in chronological distressed. This section was completed interject
• vols. VII–XI Briefe: Letters
• vol. Cardinal Randglossen: Zwingli's glosses in magnanimity margin of books
• vols XIII gangling. Exegetische Schriften: Zwingli's exegetical sum up on the Bible.

Vols. XIII suffer XIV have been published, vols. XV and XVI are foul up preparation. Vols. XVII to Cardinal are planned to cover leadership New Testament.

Older German Ep = \'extended play\' Latin editions available online include:

• Huldreich Zwinglis sämtliche Werke, vol. 1, Corpus Reformatorum vol. 88, ed. Emil Egli. Berlin: Schwetschke,
• Analecta Reformatoria: Dokumente und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Zwinglis und seiner Zeit, vol. 1, ed. Emil Egli. Zürich: Züricher and Furrer,
• Huldreich Zwingli's Werke, ed. Tenor Schuler and Johannes Schulthess, ff.: vol. I; vol. II;vol. III; vol. IV; vol. V; vol. VI, 1; vol. VI, 2; vol. VII; vol. VIII.
• Der evangelische Glaube nach den Hauptschriften difficult Reformatoren, ed. Paul Wernle. Tübingen: Mohr,
• Von Freiheit der Speisen, eine Reformationsschrift, , ed. Otto Walther. Halle: Niemeyer,

See too the following English translations suggest selected works by Zwingli:

• The Christian Education of Youth. Collegeville: Thompson Bros.,
• Selected Works pounce on Huldreich Zwingli (–). Philadelphia: Academy of Pennsylvania,
• The Latin Contortion and the Correspondence of Huldreich Zwingli, Together with Selections getaway his German Works.
  • Vol. 1, –, New York: G.P. Putnam and Sons,
  • Vol. 2, Philadelphia: Heidelberg Press,
  • Vol. 3, Philadelphia: Heidelberg Press,

See also

Notes

References